Dying Earth
Carbon monoxide (CO) is one of the most common and widely distributed air pollutants. The annual global emissions of carbon monoxide into the atmosphere have been estimated to be as high as 2600 million tonnes, of which about 60% are from human activities and about 40% from natural processes. Anthropogenic emissions of carbon monoxide originate mainly from incomplete combustion of carbonaceous materials. The largest proportion of these emissions are
produced as exhausts of internal combustion engines, especially by motor vehicles with petrol engines. Other common sources include various industrial processes, power plants using coal, and waste incinerators. Petroleum-derived emissions have greatly increased during the past few decades . Some widespread natural nonbiological and biological sources, such as plants, oceans and
oxidation of hydrocarbons, give rise to the background concentrations outside urban areas. In various indoor environments, space heaters fuelled with oil, gas or kerosene, gas stoves and some other combustion appliances, and tobacco smoking cause significant emissions of carbon monoxide. -
Ground-Level Ozone
Ozone is found in two regions of the Earth's atmosphere – at ground level and in the upper regions of the atmosphere. Both types of ozone have the same chemical composition (O3). While upper atmospheric ozone protects the earth from the sun's harmful rays, ground level ozone is the main component of smog.
Troposheric, or ground level ozone, is not emitted directly into the air, but is created by chemical reactions between oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOC). Ozone is likely to reach unhealthy levels on hot sunny days in urban environments. Ozone can also be transported long distances by wind. For this reason, even rural areas can experience high ozone levels.
High ozone concentrations have also been observed in cold months, where a few high elevation areas in the Western U.S. with high levels of local VOC and NOx emissions have formed ozone when snow is on the ground and temperatures are near or below freezing. Ozone contributes to what we typically experience as "smog" or haze, which still occurs most frequently in the summertime, but can occur throughout the year in some southern and mountain regions.
Ground level ozone- what we breathe- can harm our health. Even relatively low levels of ozone can cause health effects. People with lung disease, children, older adults, and people who are active outdoors may be particularly sensitive to ozone.
Children are at greatest risk from exposure to ozone because their lungs are still developing and they are more likely to be active outdoors when ozone levels are high, which increases their exposure. Children are also more likely than adults to have asthma.
Ozone also affects sensitive vegetation and ecosystems, including forests, parks, wildlife refuges and wilderness areas. In particular, ozone harms sensitive vegetation, including trees and plants during the growing season.
Emissions from industrial facilities and electric utilities, motor vehicle exhaust, gasoline vapors, and chemical solvents are some of the major sources of NOx and VOC.
Under the Clean Air Act, EPA has established health and environmentally protective standards for ozone in the air we breathe. EPA and others have instituted a variety of multi-faceted programs to meet these standards. Learn more about EPA's ozone standards and regulatory actions.
Throughout the country, additional programs are being put into place to cut NOx and VOC emissions from vehicles, industrial facilities, and electric utilities. Programs are also aimed at reducing pollution by reformulating fuels and consumer/commercial products, such as paints and chemical solvents that contain VOC.
Voluntary and innovative programs encourage communities to adopt practices, such as carpooling, to reduce harmful emissions. - EPA
Lead
Lead is one of the more dangerous industrial compounds that can be found in the air. As such, extremely vigorous methods have been pursued to mitigate the prevalence of lead in the air. The percentage of lead air pollution in the United States has fallen with the greatest speed and effectiveness of all major pollutants, according to the Air Quality Trends information. From 1980 through 2010, the level of lead polluting air in the United States dropped by 89%.
Nitrogen Dioxide
Nitrogen oxides are produced in combustion processes, partly from nitrogen compounds in the fuel, but mostly by direct combination of atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen in flames. Nitrogen oxides are produced naturally by lightning, and also, to a small extent, by microbial processes in soils.
Emission Sources and Trends
Man-made emissions of nitrogen oxides dominate total emissions in Europe, with the UK emitting about 2.2 million tonnes of NO2 each year. Of this, about one-quarter is from power stations, one-half from motor vehicles, and the rest from other industrial and domestic combustion processes. Unlike emissions of sulphur dioxide, emissions of nitrogen oxides are only falling slowly in the UK, as emission control strategies for stationary and mobile sources are offset by increasing numbers of road vehicles.
Emissions from electricity generation - NOx emissions from electricity generation are fairly constant from 1970 onwards until 1990. During the early 1990s the increased use of gas in electricity generation displaced coal and oil (DECC, 2009). The cleaner fuel and more modern power stations led to a significant reduction in NOx emissions from the
• An average American breathe 2 gallons of air per minute which means around 3400 gallons of air each day.
• Inhaling Air pollution takes away at least 1-2 years of a typical human life.
• It has effects as small as burning eyes and itchy throat to as large as breathing problems and death.
• Pollutants that are released into the air, as opposed to land and water pollutants, are the most harmful.
• Rising levels of air pollution in Beijing has brought a new disease – Beijing cough.
• Air pollution is not a recent occurrence. In 1952, the Great Smog of London killed 8000 people.
• Deaths caused by air pollution cost the European Union €161 billion.
• Electric vehicles produce less air pollutants. They stir up dirt but without producing gases.
• Producing heavy crude oil increases chances of air pollution by 40% than producing light crude oil.
• According to the Lancet journal, air pollution caused by waiting in traffic increases the chances of death caused due to heart attack.
• Toxic air pollution poses a greater threat to children, due to their smaller physical size and lung capacity.
• Air pollution and resulting deaths are increasing fastest in Asia.
• Air pollution that causes smog aeffects dolphins and makes them suffer from black lung diseases.
• 70% of the air pollution caused in Chinese cities is due to tailpipes.
• 5,000 premature deaths in Southern California are caused due to pollution from diesel trucks.
• Travels at Grand Canyon are unable to see the other side due to air pollution, is 1000 miles away.
• The most hazardous pollutants are released from the air and less from the water and land together.
• The best ways to reduce air pollution are by walking and riding bicycle.
• A single bus caries passengers which are likely to drive 40 cars.
• 28% of the Americans believe they are most affected by air pollution caused by vehicles.
• Air pollution in China can travel up to Central Valley of California.
• Outdoor air pollution outdoor, ranks in the top ten killers on earth.
• 65% of the deaths in Asia and 25% deaths in India are due to air pollution.
• 2 million cars in Manila, Philippines cause 80% of air pollution.
• Air pollution in India is estimated to cause 527, 700 deaths every year.
• The number of people who die in America every year due to air pollution is above 50,000.
• 80% of lung diseases are caused due to pollution from other cars, buses, trucks and other vehicles.
• It is estimated that 750,000 people die in china prematurely due to air pollution.
• Research by MIT proves that around 13,000 British citizens die due to air pollution from vehicles an power plants.
• Air pollution in California kills 25,000 people per year and costs $200 million worth of medical expenses.
• 300,000 in China die every year due heart disease and lung cancer cause by air pollution.
• People in many cities wear masks continually to save themselves from air pollution.
• Heavy crude oil increases air pollution 40% more than light crude oil.
• Air pollution caused in traffic increase the chances of heart attack.
• By 2050, 6 million people will die per year due to air pollution.
• During heavy traffic jam, pollutants outside can seep into your car, making the air inside you car 10 times more polluted than typical city air.
• According to the California Department of Education, Asthma is a leading cause of school absenteeism.
• Indoor air pollution is 2-5 times worse than the air outdoors.
• People who live near high traffic roads face greater risk of cancer, heart disease, asthma and bronchitis as these places contain more concentrated levels of air pollution.
- CEF and - Greenliving
Sulfur Dioxide
Sulfur dioxide is a gas that is most commonly produced by fuel combustion in automobiles and power plants. According to the Air Quality Trend information, sulfur dioxide has become 48% less prevalent in air throughout the United States since 2000; note that emissions of sulfur dioxide fell by 50% during the same time period. The EPA's sulfur dioxide stats show the national average amount of sulfur dioxide polluting the air has dropped 83% between 1980 and 2010. It has gotten so low that sulfur dioxide emissions have more or less leveled off over the past ten years. Sulfor dioxside is a acid rain maker. Acid rain damages forests and crops, changes the makeup of soil, and makes lakes and streams acidic and unsuitable for fish. Continued exposure over a long time changes the natural variety of plants and animals in an ecosystem. Moreover, sulfur dioxide is associated with increased risk of respiratory diseases, asthma, and premature death. The toxicity of sulfur dioxide is estimated about 700 times that of carbon dioxide.
HOW YOU CAN HELP
• Walk or ride a bike when possible.
•Take public transportation.
•Organize and condense errands into one trip.
•When driving, accelerate gradually and obey the speed limit.
•Drive less, particularly on days with unhealthy air.
•Maintain your vehicle and keep your tires properly inflated.
•Support the Smog Check Program.
•Travel lightly and remove any unnecessary items that may weigh down your vehicle.
•Limit idling your vehicle to no more than 30 seconds.
•When in the market for a new car, look for the most efficient,
lowest-polluting vehicle or even a zero-emission electric car* (more obout zero-emission electric car on our future page).
•Turn the lights off when you leave a room.
•Replace energy-hungry incandescent lights with compact florescent light bulbs.
•Ask your energy supplier for a home audit and inquire about
alternative energy solutions like solar or wind.
•Opt for a fan instead of air conditioning.
•Use a programmable thermostat and set it to 78°F in the summer and 68°F in the winter.
•Install low-flow shower heads.
•Recycle paper, plastic, metals and organic materials.
•Use an EPA-approved wood burning stove or fireplace insert.
•Don’t use your wood stove or fireplace on days with unhealthy air.
•Don’t heat your home with a gas stove.
•Use a surge protector for multiple appliances and turn it off when products are not in use.
•Add insulation to your home.
•Wash laundry in cold water and line dry.
•When ready to replace, look for energy star appliances.
•Use a propane or natural gas barbecue rather than a charcoal one.
•Microwave or use a toaster oven for small meals.
•Have your gas appliances and heater regularly inspected and maintained.
•Use washable dishes, utensils and fabric napkins rather than disposable dinnerware.
•Choose products that use recycled materials.
•Eat locally, shop at farmers markets and buy organic products.
•Buy products from sustainable sources such as bamboo and hemp.
•Use durable reusable grocery bags and keep them in
your car so you’re never caught off guard.
•Paint with a brush instead of a sprayer.
•Store all solvents in airtight containers.
•Use an electric or push lawn mower.
•Use a rake or broom instead of a leaf blower.
•Use water-based cleaning products that are labeled ‘zero VOC’.
•Insulate your water heater and any accessible hot water pipes.
•Eliminate use of toxic chemicals at home; opt for natural substitutes.
•Plant a tree! They filter the air and provide shade.
•Let your elected representatives know you support action for cleaner air.
•Start a recycling program.
•Print and photocopy on both sides of paper.
•Turn off office equipment, computers, printers, and fax machines, after hours.
•Harness the power of the sun: open the blinds and turn off the lights.
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Fact
sector until 2000. From 2000, the absolute level of gas used for electricity generation remained fairly constant, and increased demand was met by coal-fired power stations. Since 2006, coal use (and the total amount of fuel used in electricity generation) has substantially decreased (DECC, 2009).
NOx emissions from road transport - the road transport sector has provided a significant contribution to the downward trend in UK emissions. Emissions from road transport currently make the largest contribution to the UK total, accounting for some 33% in 2010 (Defra, 2011). The first petrol cars with three-way catalysts were introduced in 1992, and this resulted in a significant reduction in NOx emissions. Emission limits for diesel cars and light goods vehicles came into effect in 1993/94. Limits on emissions from heavy goods vehicles (HGVs) first came into effect in 1988 leading to a gradual reduction in emission rates as new HGVs penetrated the fleet. The introduction of these standards has had a substantial impact on NOx emissions from the road transport sector compared with the 1990s (RoTAP, 2012).
Further information and data on emissions can be found at: http://naei.defra.gov.uk/overview/pollutants?pollutant_id=6
Atmospheric chemistry and transport
The primary pollutant, directly emitted, is nitric oxide (NO), together with a small proportion of nitrogen dioxide (NO2). NO is oxidised by ozone in the atmosphere, on a time scale of tens of minutes, to give NO2. In rural air, away from sources of NO, most of the nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere are in the form of NO2. NO and NO2 are collectively known as NOx because they are rapidly inter-converted during the day. NO2 is split up by UV light to give NO and an O atom, which combines with molecular oxygen (O2) to give ozone (O3). Therefore, during the day NO, NO2 and ozone exist in a quasi-equilibrium which depends on the amount of sunlight. Eventually, NO2 is oxidised to nitric acid (HNO3, vapour) which is absorbed directly at the ground, is converted into nitrate-containing particles, or dissolves in cloud droplets. At night, different oxidation processes convert NO2 to nitrates.
Although nitric acid is rapidly absorbed on contact with surfaces (cloud droplets, soil or vegetation), the other nitrogen oxides are removed only rather slowly, and may travel many hundreds of km before their eventual conversion to nitric acid or nitrates. Consequently, emissions in one country will be deposited in others. The UK exports about three-quarters of its emissions of NOX (RoTAP, 2012).
Measured NO2 concentrations show the predominance of traffic and urban sources, with the largest concentrations in the large conurbations and adjacent to the motorway network, with annual mean concentrations in excess of 10 ppb in these areas.
Ecosystem Impacts
It is likely that the strongest effect of emissions of nitrogen oxides across the UK is through their contribution to total nitrogen deposition. However, direct effects of gaseous nitrogen oxides, may also be important, especially in areas close to sources (e.g. roadside verges). The critical level for all vegetation types from the effects of NOx has been set to 30 µg/m3. Experimental evidence suggests that moderate concentrations of NOx may produce both positive and negative growth responses, with the potential for synergistic interactions with sulphur dioxide (SO2) being very important. There is substantial evidence to suggest that the effects of NO2 are much more likely to be negative in the presence of equivalent concentrations of SO2. At the same time the ratio of SO2 to NO2 has decreased greatly in urban areas of the UK over the past 30 years.
One important effect of NOx may be its influence on insect populations; there is evidence of improved performance of insect pests on plants grown in moderate concentrations of NO2 and SO2 (Dohmen et al.,1984)
Nitrogen oxides are also one of the precursors for photochemical ozone formation (see ozone overview for information on ozone impacts). - APIS
US Environmental Protection Agency
AIR POLLUTION
The EnviroComp Institute
AN INTRODUCTION TO
AIR POLLUTION
MIT Joint Program on the
Science and Policy of Global Change
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION CONTROL ON
CLIMATE
AIR POLLUTION
Air pollution is a commonly understood environmental issue in the around the world. The accessibility of this subject is driven primarily by advanced sampling techniques that allow for the creation of much more accurate air pollution statistics. These statistics give people the ability to undertake more measured responses to environmental contaminants and they provide a window into the impacts that the human race is having on the Earth.
AIR
The atmosphere of Earth is a layer of gases surrounding the planet Earth that is retained by Earth's gravity. The atmosphere protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface through heat retention (greenhouse effect), and reducing temperature extremes between day and night (the diurnal temperature variation).
The common name given to the atmospheric gases used in breathing and photosynthesis is air. By volume, dry air contains 78.09% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.039% carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other gases. Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor, on average around 1%. Although air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers, air suitable for the survival of terrestrial plants and terrestrial animalscurrently is only known to be found in Earth's troposphere and artificial atmospheres.
The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15×1018 kg, three quarters of which is within about 11 km (6.8 mi; 36,000 ft) of the surface. The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude, with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space. The Kármán line, at 100 km (62 mi), or 1.57% of Earth's radius, is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space. Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km (75 mi). Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere, based on characteristics such as temperature and composition.
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